Martial Arts Annotated Bibliography
Draeger, D.F. (1973). Classical bujutsu. New York: Weatherhill.
“There are very great differences between the bujutsu, or martial arts, and the budo, or martial ways. The bujutsu are combative systems designed by and for warriors to promote self-protection and group solidarity. The budo are spiritual systems, not necessarily designed by warriors or for warriors, for self-perfection of the individual.” (p.19)
“In the Tokugawa period, as peace settled over the nation, armor gathered dust and systems of unarmed combat began to flourish. Proficiency at jujutsu, a generic term coined in Tokugawa times for a variety of systems used in fighting, its exponents being minimally armed, became the measure of fighting ability. In many systems of jujutsu no weapons were used. Their techniques were based on abstract ideas derived from Chinese philosophy, and the axiom ju yoku go o sei suru, ‘flexibility masters hardness’…The Japanese broadened the meaning of this axiom, giving it such connotations as ‘the soft conquers the hard,’ and ‘the weak turns aside the strong,’ and ‘in yielding there is strength’.” (p. 50)
“Methods of grappling dominated the close-quarter-combat systems of the warriors simply because those of a purely kick-and-strike nature proved ineffective against weapons and armor. No classical warrior was without skill in grappling.” (p. 90)
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Modern bujutsu and budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Historical Periods:
Yamato period (ca. 400 – 645 A.D.) was the earliest known Japanese society (p. 30)
Heian period (794 – 1185 A.D.)
Muromachi period (1336 – 1568) were characterized as war-ridden days (p. 31)
Edo (1603 – 1868)
Taisho (great righteousness) era (1912 – 1926)
Showa (radiant peace) era (1926 – present)
Historical Moments for Bujutsu:
1895 – Founding of the Dai Nippon Butokukai (Great Japan Martial Virtues Association)
1902 – Karate was introduced into the Okinawan school system
1911 – Ministry of Education directive made Kendo and Judo compulsory in all middle schools in Japan
1924 – Tokyo University adopted Karate-jutsu as physical education
1926 - With the advent of the new Japanese period of "Peace" (Showa); a cultural movement was activated shifting the focus of martial arts from applied combative systems to self-discipline and spiritual development.
According to Draeger, “Though Funakoshi favored the Shuri te style, he made a number of modifications to it. His son Yoshitaka acted as Funakoshi’s instructor; his teachings were radically new and formed the basis of the original Japanese style of karate-jutsu.” (p. 126)
1933 – Funakoshi changed the ideogram of "kara-te" from China to Empty (China-hand to Empty-hand)
1935 – Funakoshi replaced the word "jutsu" (martial art) to "do" (the way)
1936 - Funakoshi implements jyu kumite or free sparring into his Shotokan system as taught in mainland Japan
“Okinawan combative arts are not intrinsically under the influence of Buddhism because at the time of the founding of these arts Buddhism was not popular in Okinawa. The linking of Okinawan fighting arts and of Japanese karate-jutsu and karate-do to Buddhist religion or philosophy, especially Zen, is a modern innovation and one that is considerably newer than the systems it allegedly spiritually invigorates.” (p. 128)
Dillman, G., & Thomas, C. (1995). Advanced pressure point grappling: Tuite. Reading, PA: Author.
Why so few now know the bunkai or meaning of the katas?
Dillman makes the case that the karate jutsu of old is not the karate do of modern times. He argues that several events (some intentional and others unanticipated) transpired to water-down and reduce the effectiveness of the art. The following provides a brief review of his main points.
Element 1: Turn of the century (1906/1907) when karate was being introduced into the school system in Okinawa and later Japan (1920’s) the katas were taught as containing blocking and striking and some where created without many advanced/lethal techniques for ease of learning and practical needs of children/physical fitness. This included turning the ¾ twist punch into a full turn punch. This was not malicious but a miscalculation by well intentioned masters which resulted in most styles of Japanese karate and almost all U.S. GIs training to be “watered down.” It is now consistent with sport karate needs.
Element 2: When Okinawa was asked to incorporate karate into Japanese schools the handful of leading karateka (practitioners) of the day chose to teach the Japanese the “basic” interpretation of the forms due to their Chinese origin (the fact that Japan and China were at conflict historically) and due to the historical oppression of Okinawa by the Japanese (mistrust and resentment).
Element 3: When Okinawa and Japan were occupied by the U.S. during and after WW-II there was great mistrust between the conquered and the conquering and thus U.S. GIs were taught the “basics” only.
Element 4: During the period in which U.S. GIs were there in the region learning karate and other martial arts there was naturally much lost in the translation between the native instructors and the English-speaking foreigners (non-malicious).
Element 5: Most U.S. GIs remained in the area for such a short period of time that learning advanced interpretations and techniques associated with kata was impractical and unlikely to occur. The level of trust and seniority that would be required for this knowledge would have easily exceeded any military assignment period for foreigners resulting in a mastery of the “basics” only.
The Transformation of Okinawan martial arts
The transformation that took place encompassed many aspects; however, six are identified below. Each change transformed a once highly potent fighting system into a competitive sport and system of spiritual self-improvement.
Itosu's letter to the Prefectural Education Department regarding the teaching of Ryukyu Kempo Tode jitsu to children:
“The purpose of tode is to make the body hard like stones and iron; hands and feet should be used like the points of arrows; hearts should be strong and brave. If children were to practice tode from elementary-school days, they would be well prepared for military service…This will be a great asset to our militaristic society.”
Dillman argues that “since kempo was considered too hazardous for children, he modified the art so that they could not hurt each other. This had the effect of shifting the emphasis in training from combat to personal development. In this way he started a metamorphosis of kempo from bujitsu (martial science) to budo (martial way). When westerners leaned the art, they did not appreciate the difference between karate-do and Ryukyu kempo. They believed they were learning a fighting art and not a children’s art.”
Jay, W. (1981). Dynamic Jujitsu: Small circle theory. Canada: Masters Publications.
Jay, W. (1989). Small-circle Jujitsu. Burbank, CA: Ohara Publications.
Wally Jay, and student of Professor Henry S. Okazaki (Kodenkan jujitsu / Dazan ryu jujitsu) distilled his "small circle jujitsu" system into the following ten principles.
1) Balance (maintaining and off-setting)
2) Mobility and Stability (lower center of gravity for stability, raise it for mobility)
3) Avoid head-on collision of forces (angular movement and redirection of energy and momentum)
4) Mental resistance and distraction (your focus from the pain and applied distraction to de-focus your opponent)
5) Focus to the smallest point possible (directive in force application and energy transfer)
6) Energy transfer (break your opponent’s resistance)
7) Create a base (restrict the opponent’s movement – reducing their ability to adapt or flex)
8) Sticking, control and sensitivity (never lose contact once made and remain receptive to the opponent’s movements and force)
9) Rotational momentum (strong off-balancing movements – push and pull with arms simultaneously then circle back)
10) Transitional flow (change and counterattack opponent’s intentions – exert pain through transitions, maximize this for effect, mobility is more important here than stability)
The following is a recommended list of martial arts books and references. This is far from a comprehensive list; however, it highlights several excellent reference materials for practitioners of okinawan karate in particular.
Alexander, G.W. (1991). Okinawa island of karate. Lake Wroth, FL: Yamazato.
Arakaki, K. (2000). The secrets of Okinawan karate: Essence and techniques. New York: Kodansha.
Bishop, M. (1997). Zen kobudo: Mysteries of Okinawan weaponry and te. Rutland, VA: Tuttle Publishing.
Bishop, M. (1994). Okinawan karate: Teachers, Styles and Secret Techniques. London: AC & Black.
Bitanga, D.S. (1980). Karate kata of the Shorin school. Baltimore, MD: Mars Publishing.
Cummins, W., & Scaglione, R. (1984). Shorin-Ryu Okinawan karate question and answer book. New York: Person to Person publishing.
Demura, F. (1971). Nunchaku: Karate weapon of self-defense. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Demura, F. (1976). Bo: Karate weapon of self-defense. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Dillman, G., & Thomas, C. (1995). Advanced pressure point grappling: Tuite. Reading, PA: Author.
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Modern bujutsu & budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Classical budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Draeger, D.F. (1973). Classical bujutsu. New York: Weatherhill.
Funakoshi, G. (1975). Karate-do, my way of life. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1973). Karate-do kyohan. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1988). Karate-do nyumon. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1997). To-te jitsu. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publication.
Hargrove, F.D.R. (1989). The 100 year history of Shorin-Ryu karate.
Higaonna, M. (1985). Traditional karatedo: Fundamental Techniques Okinawan Goju Ryu (1). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1986). Traditional karatedo: Performances of the kata Okinawan Goju Ryu (2). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1989). Traditional karatedo: Applications of the kata Okinawan Goju Ryu (3). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1990). Traditional karatedo: Applications of the kata part 2 Okinawan Goju Ryu (4). Tokyo: Minato.
Hisataka, M.K. (1994). Essential Shorinjiryu karatedo. Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishing.
Hokama, T. (1972). History and traditions of Okinawan karate. Canada.
Hyams, J. (1979). Zen in the martial arts. New York: Bantam.
Kim, R. (1974). The weaponless warriors. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Kim, R. (1983). Kobudo: Okinawan weapons of Matsu Higa. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publishing.
Kim, R. (1985). Kobudo: Okinawan weapons of Hama Higa. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publishing.
Kisei, F. (2003). The spirit of Okinawan karate. Okinawa: Omoro.
Lennox, J.C. (1980). Isshinryu karate. New Jersey: Author.
Mattson, G.E. (1974). Uechiryu karate do: Classical Chinese Okinawan self defense. Brockton, MA: Peabody.
McCarthy, P. (1987). Classical kata of Okinawan karate. Santa Clarita, CA: Ohara Publications.
McCarthy, P. (1995). Bubishi: The Bible of karate. Boston, MA: Tuttle.
McKenna, M. (2009). An overview of karate do. Vancouver, BC: Author. (translation of Genwa Nakasone's Karate do Taikan)
Miyamoto, M. (1974). A book of five rings: A guide to strategy. Translated by Victor Harris. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.
Motobu, C. (1995). Okinawa Kempo. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publication.
Nagamine, S. (2000). Tales of Okinawa’s Great Masters. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Nagamine, S. (1998). The essence of Okinawan karate-do. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Nakayama, M. (1986). Dynamic karate. New York: Kodansha International.
Nakazato, S. (1990). United States Shorin-Ryu Karate-Do Association official handbook.
Nishiyama, H., & Brown, R. (1973). Karate: The art of “empty hand” fighting. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing.
Patterson, C.T. (1974). An introduction to Wado-ryu karate. Los Angeles, CA: Ohara Publications.
Rosenbaum, M. (2001). Okinawa’s complete karate system: Isshin-Ryu. Boston, MA: YMAA Publication Center.
Sells, J. (2000). Unant: The secrets of karate (2nd edition). Hollywood, CA: W.M. Hawley.
Sun, T. (1983). The art of war. (Ed.) James Clavell. New York: Dell Publishing.
Uchinadi, K. (1999). Ancient Okinawan martial arts: Volume one. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Yamaguchi, G. (1972). The fundamentals of Goju-ryu karate. Los Angeles, CA: Ohara Publications.
“There are very great differences between the bujutsu, or martial arts, and the budo, or martial ways. The bujutsu are combative systems designed by and for warriors to promote self-protection and group solidarity. The budo are spiritual systems, not necessarily designed by warriors or for warriors, for self-perfection of the individual.” (p.19)
“In the Tokugawa period, as peace settled over the nation, armor gathered dust and systems of unarmed combat began to flourish. Proficiency at jujutsu, a generic term coined in Tokugawa times for a variety of systems used in fighting, its exponents being minimally armed, became the measure of fighting ability. In many systems of jujutsu no weapons were used. Their techniques were based on abstract ideas derived from Chinese philosophy, and the axiom ju yoku go o sei suru, ‘flexibility masters hardness’…The Japanese broadened the meaning of this axiom, giving it such connotations as ‘the soft conquers the hard,’ and ‘the weak turns aside the strong,’ and ‘in yielding there is strength’.” (p. 50)
“Methods of grappling dominated the close-quarter-combat systems of the warriors simply because those of a purely kick-and-strike nature proved ineffective against weapons and armor. No classical warrior was without skill in grappling.” (p. 90)
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Modern bujutsu and budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Historical Periods:
Yamato period (ca. 400 – 645 A.D.) was the earliest known Japanese society (p. 30)
Heian period (794 – 1185 A.D.)
Muromachi period (1336 – 1568) were characterized as war-ridden days (p. 31)
Edo (1603 – 1868)
Taisho (great righteousness) era (1912 – 1926)
Showa (radiant peace) era (1926 – present)
Historical Moments for Bujutsu:
1895 – Founding of the Dai Nippon Butokukai (Great Japan Martial Virtues Association)
1902 – Karate was introduced into the Okinawan school system
1911 – Ministry of Education directive made Kendo and Judo compulsory in all middle schools in Japan
1924 – Tokyo University adopted Karate-jutsu as physical education
1926 - With the advent of the new Japanese period of "Peace" (Showa); a cultural movement was activated shifting the focus of martial arts from applied combative systems to self-discipline and spiritual development.
According to Draeger, “Though Funakoshi favored the Shuri te style, he made a number of modifications to it. His son Yoshitaka acted as Funakoshi’s instructor; his teachings were radically new and formed the basis of the original Japanese style of karate-jutsu.” (p. 126)
1933 – Funakoshi changed the ideogram of "kara-te" from China to Empty (China-hand to Empty-hand)
1935 – Funakoshi replaced the word "jutsu" (martial art) to "do" (the way)
1936 - Funakoshi implements jyu kumite or free sparring into his Shotokan system as taught in mainland Japan
“Okinawan combative arts are not intrinsically under the influence of Buddhism because at the time of the founding of these arts Buddhism was not popular in Okinawa. The linking of Okinawan fighting arts and of Japanese karate-jutsu and karate-do to Buddhist religion or philosophy, especially Zen, is a modern innovation and one that is considerably newer than the systems it allegedly spiritually invigorates.” (p. 128)
Dillman, G., & Thomas, C. (1995). Advanced pressure point grappling: Tuite. Reading, PA: Author.
Why so few now know the bunkai or meaning of the katas?
Dillman makes the case that the karate jutsu of old is not the karate do of modern times. He argues that several events (some intentional and others unanticipated) transpired to water-down and reduce the effectiveness of the art. The following provides a brief review of his main points.
Element 1: Turn of the century (1906/1907) when karate was being introduced into the school system in Okinawa and later Japan (1920’s) the katas were taught as containing blocking and striking and some where created without many advanced/lethal techniques for ease of learning and practical needs of children/physical fitness. This included turning the ¾ twist punch into a full turn punch. This was not malicious but a miscalculation by well intentioned masters which resulted in most styles of Japanese karate and almost all U.S. GIs training to be “watered down.” It is now consistent with sport karate needs.
Element 2: When Okinawa was asked to incorporate karate into Japanese schools the handful of leading karateka (practitioners) of the day chose to teach the Japanese the “basic” interpretation of the forms due to their Chinese origin (the fact that Japan and China were at conflict historically) and due to the historical oppression of Okinawa by the Japanese (mistrust and resentment).
Element 3: When Okinawa and Japan were occupied by the U.S. during and after WW-II there was great mistrust between the conquered and the conquering and thus U.S. GIs were taught the “basics” only.
Element 4: During the period in which U.S. GIs were there in the region learning karate and other martial arts there was naturally much lost in the translation between the native instructors and the English-speaking foreigners (non-malicious).
Element 5: Most U.S. GIs remained in the area for such a short period of time that learning advanced interpretations and techniques associated with kata was impractical and unlikely to occur. The level of trust and seniority that would be required for this knowledge would have easily exceeded any military assignment period for foreigners resulting in a mastery of the “basics” only.
The Transformation of Okinawan martial arts
The transformation that took place encompassed many aspects; however, six are identified below. Each change transformed a once highly potent fighting system into a competitive sport and system of spiritual self-improvement.
- Te or To-De Jitsu to Karate Do (a deadly art of the Chinese or “Tang” hand to a philosophy consistent with Zen meaning the way of the empty hand)
- ¾ twist punch becomes a full turn punch
- Okinawa/China to Japan
- Open hands to closed hands (there are multiple weapons on the hand, the most basic and least destructive is the fist – justification for grip strength and finger strength exercises)
- Traditional Kata to the blocks and simplified techniques of sport karate
- An art of self-defense to a philosophy and sport
Itosu's letter to the Prefectural Education Department regarding the teaching of Ryukyu Kempo Tode jitsu to children:
“The purpose of tode is to make the body hard like stones and iron; hands and feet should be used like the points of arrows; hearts should be strong and brave. If children were to practice tode from elementary-school days, they would be well prepared for military service…This will be a great asset to our militaristic society.”
Dillman argues that “since kempo was considered too hazardous for children, he modified the art so that they could not hurt each other. This had the effect of shifting the emphasis in training from combat to personal development. In this way he started a metamorphosis of kempo from bujitsu (martial science) to budo (martial way). When westerners leaned the art, they did not appreciate the difference between karate-do and Ryukyu kempo. They believed they were learning a fighting art and not a children’s art.”
Jay, W. (1981). Dynamic Jujitsu: Small circle theory. Canada: Masters Publications.
Jay, W. (1989). Small-circle Jujitsu. Burbank, CA: Ohara Publications.
Wally Jay, and student of Professor Henry S. Okazaki (Kodenkan jujitsu / Dazan ryu jujitsu) distilled his "small circle jujitsu" system into the following ten principles.
1) Balance (maintaining and off-setting)
2) Mobility and Stability (lower center of gravity for stability, raise it for mobility)
3) Avoid head-on collision of forces (angular movement and redirection of energy and momentum)
4) Mental resistance and distraction (your focus from the pain and applied distraction to de-focus your opponent)
5) Focus to the smallest point possible (directive in force application and energy transfer)
6) Energy transfer (break your opponent’s resistance)
7) Create a base (restrict the opponent’s movement – reducing their ability to adapt or flex)
8) Sticking, control and sensitivity (never lose contact once made and remain receptive to the opponent’s movements and force)
9) Rotational momentum (strong off-balancing movements – push and pull with arms simultaneously then circle back)
10) Transitional flow (change and counterattack opponent’s intentions – exert pain through transitions, maximize this for effect, mobility is more important here than stability)
The following is a recommended list of martial arts books and references. This is far from a comprehensive list; however, it highlights several excellent reference materials for practitioners of okinawan karate in particular.
Alexander, G.W. (1991). Okinawa island of karate. Lake Wroth, FL: Yamazato.
Arakaki, K. (2000). The secrets of Okinawan karate: Essence and techniques. New York: Kodansha.
Bishop, M. (1997). Zen kobudo: Mysteries of Okinawan weaponry and te. Rutland, VA: Tuttle Publishing.
Bishop, M. (1994). Okinawan karate: Teachers, Styles and Secret Techniques. London: AC & Black.
Bitanga, D.S. (1980). Karate kata of the Shorin school. Baltimore, MD: Mars Publishing.
Cummins, W., & Scaglione, R. (1984). Shorin-Ryu Okinawan karate question and answer book. New York: Person to Person publishing.
Demura, F. (1971). Nunchaku: Karate weapon of self-defense. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Demura, F. (1976). Bo: Karate weapon of self-defense. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Dillman, G., & Thomas, C. (1995). Advanced pressure point grappling: Tuite. Reading, PA: Author.
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Modern bujutsu & budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Draeger, D.F. (1974). Classical budo. New York: Weatherhill.
Draeger, D.F. (1973). Classical bujutsu. New York: Weatherhill.
Funakoshi, G. (1975). Karate-do, my way of life. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1973). Karate-do kyohan. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1988). Karate-do nyumon. Tokyo: Kodansha International.
Funakoshi, G. (1997). To-te jitsu. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publication.
Hargrove, F.D.R. (1989). The 100 year history of Shorin-Ryu karate.
Higaonna, M. (1985). Traditional karatedo: Fundamental Techniques Okinawan Goju Ryu (1). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1986). Traditional karatedo: Performances of the kata Okinawan Goju Ryu (2). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1989). Traditional karatedo: Applications of the kata Okinawan Goju Ryu (3). Tokyo: Minato.
Higaonna, M. (1990). Traditional karatedo: Applications of the kata part 2 Okinawan Goju Ryu (4). Tokyo: Minato.
Hisataka, M.K. (1994). Essential Shorinjiryu karatedo. Rutland, VT: Tuttle Publishing.
Hokama, T. (1972). History and traditions of Okinawan karate. Canada.
Hyams, J. (1979). Zen in the martial arts. New York: Bantam.
Kim, R. (1974). The weaponless warriors. Burbank, CA: Ohara.
Kim, R. (1983). Kobudo: Okinawan weapons of Matsu Higa. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publishing.
Kim, R. (1985). Kobudo: Okinawan weapons of Hama Higa. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publishing.
Kisei, F. (2003). The spirit of Okinawan karate. Okinawa: Omoro.
Lennox, J.C. (1980). Isshinryu karate. New Jersey: Author.
Mattson, G.E. (1974). Uechiryu karate do: Classical Chinese Okinawan self defense. Brockton, MA: Peabody.
McCarthy, P. (1987). Classical kata of Okinawan karate. Santa Clarita, CA: Ohara Publications.
McCarthy, P. (1995). Bubishi: The Bible of karate. Boston, MA: Tuttle.
McKenna, M. (2009). An overview of karate do. Vancouver, BC: Author. (translation of Genwa Nakasone's Karate do Taikan)
Miyamoto, M. (1974). A book of five rings: A guide to strategy. Translated by Victor Harris. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press.
Motobu, C. (1995). Okinawa Kempo. Ontario, Canada: Masters Publication.
Nagamine, S. (2000). Tales of Okinawa’s Great Masters. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Nagamine, S. (1998). The essence of Okinawan karate-do. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Nakayama, M. (1986). Dynamic karate. New York: Kodansha International.
Nakazato, S. (1990). United States Shorin-Ryu Karate-Do Association official handbook.
Nishiyama, H., & Brown, R. (1973). Karate: The art of “empty hand” fighting. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing.
Patterson, C.T. (1974). An introduction to Wado-ryu karate. Los Angeles, CA: Ohara Publications.
Rosenbaum, M. (2001). Okinawa’s complete karate system: Isshin-Ryu. Boston, MA: YMAA Publication Center.
Sells, J. (2000). Unant: The secrets of karate (2nd edition). Hollywood, CA: W.M. Hawley.
Sun, T. (1983). The art of war. (Ed.) James Clavell. New York: Dell Publishing.
Uchinadi, K. (1999). Ancient Okinawan martial arts: Volume one. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing.
Yamaguchi, G. (1972). The fundamentals of Goju-ryu karate. Los Angeles, CA: Ohara Publications.